![]() ![]() Recent evidence stresses that at least one subtype of dyslexia is affected by differences in visual processing 42, which can be detected within eye movement recordings 43, 44. However, reading speed rates neither provide insight into the cognitive mechanisms nor the visual sampling strategy by which readers with dyslexia may decode written text differently. The difference in reading rates between affected and non-affected adults with dyslexia can equate to the difference observed in early readers 39, 40, 41. ![]() These studies report that readers with dyslexia read at a slower rate (i.e., fewer words per minute) compared to readers without dyslexia 35, 37, 38, 39, 40. While deficits in phonological awareness are considered established 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, other deficits in low-level sensory processing 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 and visual attention remain under scrutiny (e.g., 34).įrequently, researchers who investigate the reading skills and strategies of children and adolescents 35, 36, 37 or adults 38, 39, 40 with dyslexia during sentence reading have focused on reading speed as a measure of performance. Dyslexia’s aetiology remains the subject of a heated debate with proponents attributing the main underlying cause to deficits in a variety of systems associated with reading (i.e., phonological awareness, visuo-spatial attention 17, magnocellular and cerebellar function 18, 19, 20, 21, or a lack of reading experience 22, 23). An estimated 5 to 20% of the population are affected 11, 12, 15, 16. Slow reading and a deficit in reading comprehension can be resulting secondary consequences 10, 11, 15. Specifically, struggles with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and decoding abilities that typically result from deficits in phonological awareness characterize this disorder 10, 11. Dyslexia is a language-based, neurobiological specific learning disorder affecting reading, writing, and spelling 10, 11, which persists into adulthood 10, 12, 13, 14. One group that is well-known to struggle with developing proficient and fast reading skills are individuals with dyslexia. These findings underline the importance of an automatized, rapid interplay of low-level eye movements with higher-level cognitive processing during reading such as lexical, phonological, and semantic processing 1, 8, 9. ![]() This duration may be even shorter due to the preview benefit of text appearing outside of the fovea 6, 7. The time available for completing a fixation and its associated linguistic tasks, and planning the next eye movement (a saccade) is approximately 225–250 ms per stop 1, 4, 5. Saccades are typically 7–9 characters wide 1 and take 20–30 ms during reading 4. ![]() Each fixation is complemented by a brief jump in eye position, termed a saccade, which relocates the fovea to the next part of the text to be processed. The stops in eye movements, termed fixations, are an essential part of reading 1, 2 and a prerequisite for adequate decoding of a text’s content including successful word selection from the mental lexicon 3. Reading is a complex task requiring the eyes, specifically the fovea of the retina, to stop on the written text to successfully encode the sequence of letters that make up each word, and will eventually be assigned meaning (i.e., semantics) during decoding and matching with one’s mental lexicon. Within today’s society, quick and accurate reading skills are essential to participate in societal activities (e.g., education, using social media, communication) and to achieve professional success. Our findings suggest a mix of aberrant cognitive linguistic and oculomotor processes being present in adults with dyslexia. We conclude that individuals with dyslexia visually sample written information in a laborious and more effortful manner that is fundamentally different from those without dyslexia. We observed different eye movements in readers with dyslexia across numerous eye movement metrics including the duration of a stop (i.e., fixation), the length of jumps (i.e., saccades), and the number of times a reader’s eyes expressed a jump atypical for reading. Using a validated standardized reading assessment, our findings confirm a reading speed deficit among adults with dyslexia. This study sought to replicate established behavioral deficits in reading and cognitive processing speed while investigating their underlying mechanisms in more detail by developing a comprehensive profile of eye movements specific to reading in adult dyslexia. Reports of visual symptoms such as atypical eye movements during reading gave rise to a search for these deficits’ underlying mechanisms. Slow reading speed and worse text comprehension can occur as secondary consequences of these deficits. Individuals with dyslexia present with reading-related deficits including inaccurate and/or less fluent word recognition and poor decoding abilities. ![]()
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